Levorphanol use: past, present and future.

Levorphanol is a potent opioid analgesic that was first approved for use in the United States in 1953. Levorphanol is approved for use in moderate to severe pain where an opioid analgesic is appropriate. Levorphanol has a wide range of activities including mu opioid agonism, delta agonism, kappa1 and kappa3 receptor agonism, N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonism and reuptake inhibition of both norepinephrine and serotonin. This multimodal profile might prove effective for pain syndromes that are refractory to other opioid analgesics, such as central and neuropathic pain and opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Levorphanol is well suited as a first-line opioid and can also be used during opioid rotation. It has no known effect on the cardiac QT interval or drug-drug interactions involving hepatic cytochrome P450s enzymes. In these regards, levorphanol may offer a superior safety profile over methadone and other long-acting opioids. Despite its prospective value of multiple mechanisms of action and the potential for treating various types of pain, levorphanol use has been largely supplanted by other recently approved opioids. Its waning use over the years has caused it to be referred to as the "Forgotten Opioid" and resulted in what some consider its underutilization. In fact, levorphanol is relatively unfamiliar to most prescribers. The purpose of this review is to inform practitioners about the attributes of this opioid and reintroduce it to clinicians as an option for treating moderate to severe pain when alternative treatment options are inadequate, not indicated or contraindicated.

Synthesis and opioid activity of novel 6-ketolevorphanol derivatives.

Novel 6-ketolevorphanol analogs with diverse substitution patterns at ring C were synthesized and their binding affinities at the µ,δ and κ opioid receptors were investigated. The in vitro activity of the new analogs was then evaluated in the functional assay based on the electrically-stimulated contractions of the mouse ileum. It was shown that analogs with Δ7,8 bond had no significant potency at any of the opioid receptor types. In contrast, analogs with the saturated ring C were either potent κ agonist or antagonist depending on the absence or presence of the hydroxyl group in position 14.

Exploration of catalytic properties of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 through metabolic studies of levorphanol and levallorphan.

CYP2D6 and CYP3A4, two members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of monooxygenases, mediate the biotransformation of a variety of xenobiotics. The two enzymes differ in substrate specificity and size and characteristics of the active site cavity. The aim of this study was to determine whether the catalytic properties of these isoforms, reflected by the differences observed from crystal structures and homology models, could be confirmed with experimental data. Detailed metabolite identification, reversible inhibition, and time-dependent inhibition were examined for levorphanol and levallorphan with CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. The studies were designed to provide a comparison of the orientations of substrates, the catalytic sites of the two enzymes, and the subsequent outcomes on metabolism and inhibition. The metabolite identification revealed that CYP3A4 catalyzed the formation of a variety of metabolites as a result of presenting different parts of the substrates to the heme. CYP2D6 was a poorer catalyst that led to a more limited number of metabolites that were interpreted in terms to two orientations of the substrates. The inhibition studies showed evidence for strong reversible inhibition of CYP2D6 but not for CYP3A4. Levallorphan acted as a time-dependent inhibitor on CYP3A4, indicating a productive binding mode with this enzyme not observed with CYP2D6 that presumably resulted from close interactions of the N-allyl moiety oriented toward the heme. All the results are in agreement with the large and flexible active site of CYP3A4 and the more restricted active site of CYP2D6.

Characterization of delta-opioid receptors and effect of enkephalins on IRD 98 rat epithelial intestinal cell line.

Using 3H-Tyr-D-Ala-Gly-Phe-D-Leu-OH (3H-DADLE) as a radioligand, delta-opioid binding sites on the IRD 98 rat epithelial cell line were identified. These sites were found to be reversible, saturable, specific and displayed high affinity for DADLE. Scatchard analysis revealed a dissociation constant (Kd) of 4.9+/-0.5 nmol/l, a maximum binding capacity (Bmax) of 1.7 pmol/mg protein, and 5x10(5) binding sites per cell. The presence of opioid receptors suggests the possibility that enkephalins directly control ion transport in enterocytes. In order to verify this hypothesis, investigations were designed to determine whether these receptors are functional and whether enkephalins can inhibit the stimulation of adenosine 3',5' cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) synthesis induced by cholera toxin. The increase in cAMP synthesis induced by cholera toxin was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by H-Tyr-D-Ser-Gly-Phe-Leu-Thr-OH (DSLET), a delta-agonist. The enkephalinase inhibitor thiorphan potentiated this effect on IRD 98 cells, which contain enkephalinase. The action of DSLET was increased by 40% in the presence of this inhibitor. This effect was reversed by naltrindole, a potent delta-antagonist. Enkephalins can regulate intestinal secretion by acting directly on enterocytes: they thus have an antidiarrheal role, especially in the presence of an enkephalinase inhibitor.

Cyclodextrin-mediated micellar electrokinetic chromatography and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the enantiomer separation of racemorphan in human urine.

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) was successfully and conveniently applied to the chiral separation with the addition of cyclodextrins (CDs) as chiral selector to the running buffer. Chiral separation depended on the type of CD; in particular, beta-CD was effective for the chiral separation of racemorphan. We investigated the optimal conditions of type and concentration of CD as chiral selector for the routine enantiomeric separation of racemorphan with good reproducibility. The effects of other parameters such as buffer pH and detection wavelength were also investigated to obtain the optimum conditions for the enantiomeric separation of racemorphan. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used for confirmation of racemorphan. The optimal conditions for enantiomeric separation of the racemorphan were as follows: 50 mM borate buffer at pH 9.4 with 50 mM SDS, 10 mM beta-CD and 20% 1-propanol, 57 cm x 50 microns fused-silica capillary column, and UV detection at 192 nm. Based on the developed method, racemorphan in human urine was also separated and determined using solid-phase extraction and MEKC.